1. The same is also true of Arabic views of 'the west' although the template for the stereotype is more detailed and colourful thanks largely to what Dissanayake refers to as the 'American semiotic empire'. (1996 p.109)
2. Said has called ‘the Orient’ one of Europe’s ‘deepest and most recurring images of the other.’ (Said, 1978, p.1-2)
3. The reasons seem obvious when the ‘risks’ are made clear:

‘When Disney […] produces a film, it can also guarantee the film showings on pay cable television and commercial nework television, and it can produce and sell soundtracks based on the film, it can create spin-off television series, it can produce related amusement park rides, CD-Roms, books, comics, and merchandise to be sold in Disney stores. Moreover Disney can promote the film and related material incessantly across all its media properties.’ (Herman and McChesney, 1997, p.54)

4. Herman and McChesney underline how important foreign markets are to the ‘American’ film industry in recent years:

‘After the burst of U.S. expansion in the early 1980s, the percentage of non-U.S. revenue for the film industry increased from 33 percent in 1984 to over 50 percent in 1993, where it has remained. The international business is exploding,’ a Hollywood distributor stated in 1995, predicting that by 2000 non-U.S. revenues will account for 60-70 percent of studio income.’ (Herman and McChesney, 1997, p. 44)

5. For example, Orbit, one of the biggest satellite TV companies in the region is considering moving its corporate headquarters from Rome to Bahrain where it can be closer to the wealthy local market and take advantage of the government’s tax concessions. Orbit and the rival satellite platform ART (Arab Radio and television) both have large studio complexes near Cairo, traditionally, the centre of the Arab entertainment world. As Forrester explains, from the 1940s to the 1960s, Cairo produced around 50 motion pictures annually while other Arab countries made only a handful. ‘The established concentration of skilled industry craftspeople enabled the city to remain an industry leader’ (March, 1991, p.1).
6. Entertainment corporations now feel so confident about their future in the Gulf region that they are able to issue ‘stern reprimands’ to the Kuwaiti authorities, who alone amongst the Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC) countries, ‘have been reluctant to introduce legal action’ against copyright violators (Gulf Marketing Review, December 1998). For political economists such as Herman and McChesney an important function of copyright and patents is to ‘protect monopoly positions, keep prices high and transfer income from poor to rich countries’ (1997, p.52).
7. Aloofy’s independent content analysis survey is useful because, as he remarks: ‘it is important to note that some stations have a tendency to under-report figures for international productions so as to appear largely reliant on domestic resources.’ (1998, p.51)

8. This view of Al Jazeera is supported by David Hirst writing in Le Monde Diplomatique:

‘No one else, not even Egypt’s broadcasting collossus, come near. English-speaking Arabs who used to turn to CNN now have the Arabic equivalent, covering their affairs with a grasp and depth, passion and intinlacy, that no foreign organisation could ever match. […]Jazeera has been enough for this disregarded backwater to conquer the Arab world with the word – and with just 300 employees, who are crammed into a glorified Nissen hut in the desert. The HQ astonished Egypt’s President Mubarak when he dropped in unannounced. ‘All this trouble,’ he exclaimed, ‘from a matchbox like this!’ (Hirst, 2000, p.11)

9. Shaheen quotes from Kellner and Ryan’s ‘Camera Politica’ a paper presented at the 1985 Popular Culture Association Conference in Kentucky.
10. A small (1½ page study) of female student reactions to two videos ‘Gorillas in the Mist’ and ‘Miss Goodall and the Wild Chimpanzees’ was conducted by an English language teacher, Dr Ranjini Philip, at Zayed University in Dubai. This provided more interesting evidence of both ‘preferred’ and ‘resistant’ or even ‘deviant’ readings by female students to material designed to elicit sympathy for the plight of primates facing extinction. The reactions of students to strong female protagonists, in my opinion, showed a classic example of ‘split readings’. Students showed both admiration for the women’s independence, confidence and intelligence; and distaste and suspicion at aspects of their lifestyle (their unmarried status in particular). Not all students agreed with the work that they did, complaining that instead of directing their hate at hunters ‘they should have tried to solve the problem of their employment'. The report was written from an EFL perspective and appeared in an English language newsletter (Philip 1999).

A handful of studies have been carried out into television viewing patterns in the Gulf, some of which are unpublished, such as that by Bait Almal (1993) and Aloofy (1990), which are referenced in Aloofy (1998), but nothing to my knowledge on Arab reaction to or use of western film. Other general studies on media in the Gulf exist but some are out of date (Kamalipour 1994) and few refer to audiences except in passing.

11. Please note that throughout this paper I refer only to first names to preserve the anonymity of the respondents.
12. The figures should not be regarded as a representative sample of the population, or even of the college (more men were sampled than women). However, they may give an approximate guide to wider national trends.
13. A tendency in ethnographic research that Walkerdine (1993) cautions against.
14. It is a trend that the authors believe is set to increase:

‘One entertainment genre that needs little differentiation for global commercial success is violence, and Hollywood has established itself as preeminent producer of ‘action’ fare. `Kicking butt,’ one U.S. media excutive states, ‘pIays everywhere.’ The major U.S. studios find violent fare as close to risk-free as anything they produce, and they have little trouble locating non-U.S. interests willing to cover a share of production costs in return for distribution or broadcasting rights in their nation or region. `For the U.S. studio it’s an excellent deal,’ the same executive concludes. `Even if the show bombs, the production cost is not drastic. If it hits, it’s all upside.’ And with non-U.S. sales playing a larger role in studio planning, violent fare for film and television looks set to command a larger segment of Hollywood output. (Herman and McChesney, 1997, p. 45)

15. A classic chicken and egg ‘effects’ puzzle. The answer of course as to which ‘comes first’ – language competency or regular film viewing shows the theoretical weakness of any study attempting to isolate ‘determining’ (rather than interrelated) factors.

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